Part 1 It’s in the Water: Tap Water

After oxygen, water is the most vital element that keeps us alive. It is needed in constant supply for every single process in the body from digestion, respiration and circulation to lymphatic and hormone function. An adult body is between 55% – 65% water and the brain and heart is composed of approx 73% water. Given this importance, it’s surprising how little thought is given to what is in our water.

Most people I know stick to bottled water or use their Brita filter jug because they prefer the taste. But why are we paying so much for bottled water when we can get it from the tap for free? If we prefer the taste once it’s been filtered, what is it that we’re filtering out and could the chemicals in our tap water be potentially harmful to our health?

Tap water

I think that our water companies do an outstanding job of getting clean water to the taps of millions of people. When I visit countries that don’t have clean water I remember how spoilt we are. But while this water is clean, does that mean it is pure? I guess that depends on your point of view and how careful you want to be about what you’re drinking. I know people who have no preference, but for the rest of you here is what I discovered.

Apart from the fact that I find the taste of tap water unpleasant, it occurred to me that I didn’t actually know what was in it, so I contacted Thames Water and the Drinking Water Inspectorate (DWI).  I found it quite amusing that each person I spoke to seemed slightly offended that I was asking what was in the water.

The Drinking Water Inspectorate monitor our water supply to ensure that certain substances do not reach harmful levels. Below is an exert from their report.

PARAMETERS TESTED IN THE UK:

µg/l   =    micrograms per litre

Arsenic 10 μgAs/l
Bromate 10 μgBrO3/l
Cyanide 50 µg/l
Lead 25 μgPb/l
Nickel 20 μgNi/l

I will look at cyanide as an example. Your drinking water can contain up to 50µg/l (µg/l stands for micrograms per litre) of cyanide before it is deemed unsafe to drink. The level of contamination usually falls far below this threshold.  All water samples in the UK seem to contain concentrations below the 50µg/l with one exception of 100µg/l.₄ From my research, this level of exposure is not harmful to humans with an effective detoxification system.

A group of scientists did some research into the effects of low dose cyanide on rats and goats. Both demonstrated neurological problems after administering cyanide for a time period of 3-5 months._3,28   Although this sounds bad for us, the dose given to the rats and goats was MUCH higher than we would ever get from water that’s been filtered appropriately by your supplier.  

The lowest lethal dose for humans was measured at 0.56mg/kg body weight₅ which could happen if you were working closely with this chemical and/or if it was accidentally inhaled. Smoking is another risk factor for higher cyanide levels in the blood. But from what I can see here, the level in our water is safe.

Chlorine

My main concern with tap water is chlorine which is added to our water supply as a cheap and effective way of killing the bacteria and microbes to prevent waterborne diseases. One of the reasons that chlorine is used is because it doesn’t break down. Water can be treated with chlorine at the filtration plant and 10 miles away the chlorine remains in the water and pipes when it reaches the home. Of course our water needs to be sanitised, as inadequate disinfection is not an option, but should we be filtering out the chlorine before we use it? Unfortunately more and more research is being done to demonstrate the dangers of chlorine and it would seem there are a number of health issues related to chlorine exposure. These include increased incidence of bladder_6,7,8 and rectal cancer,_6,26  asthma,₉ adverse reproductive outcomes such as low birth weight, spontaneous abortions and birth defects.₁₀

Chlorine could affect the balance of bacteria in our gut as it’s anti-microbial and kills living organisms. More studies need to be done to understand whether this has an adverse effect on the beneficial bacteria in our gut. I can’t find any studies but please feel free to highlight them to me if you know of any?!

Here is an exert from a paper by Dr. Zoltan P. Rona who has written on the dangers of chlorine:₃₀
“Chlorinated water contains chemical compounds called trihalomethanes which are carcinogens₂₇ resulting from the combination of chlorine with organic compounds in water. These chemicals, also known as organochlorides, do not degrade very well and are generally stored in the fatty tissues of the body (breast, other fatty areas, mother’s milk, blood and semen). Organochlorides can cause mutations by altering DNA, suppress immune system function and interfere with the natural controls of cell growth“.

A study back in 1993 showed that trihalomethanes were carcinogenic to the liver, kidneys, and intestines of rodents.₂₇ This is not new information but I don’t think enough has been done to ensure people are filtering out the chlorine in their drinking the water.

Pharmaceuticals

Pharmaceutical drugs are present in drinking water in extremely small quantities due to excretion in the urine and faeces of humans and animals and from environmental waste. Intensive factory farming uses high quantities of pharmaceuticals such as antibiotics. Due to the animals being packed into small spaces antibiotics are used to reduce disease and increase the yield.

Studies have shown the presence of pharmaceuticals like antibiotics, anti-inflammatories and psychotropics in our water, which can affect fish and other aquatic life._23,24  

Another study showed that exposure to a mix of drugs, (13 varieties) commonly found in our environment, could inhibit the growth of human embryonic cells, with the highest effect observed as a 30% decrease in cell proliferation compared to controls. Pharmaceuticals induced over-expression of glutathione-S-transferase P1 gene.₂₅ To simplify this, glutathione-S-transferase P1 gene is involved in many processes, one being apoptosis. Apoptosis is the important process of cell death and is part of the life cycle of human cells. As apoptosis is tightly regulated by the body it is important to monitor external factors that could negatively affect the regulation of this process.

The United States Environmental Protection Agency has not set any safety limits for drugs in drinking water and does not yet require testing.

Water UK states:
“Currently no standards exist to regulate the levels of pharmaceutical substances present in environmental water sources or in drinking water’.₂₉  

This means there is no statutory duty to check for these substances. The limited information that is available comes from targeted research studies rather than from any routine monitoring. 

When I asked Thames Water about this they said that the levels of pharmaceuticals drugs are so low they are undetectable. This is encouraging, however. if they are not testing I’m not sure how they would know.

Fluoride

Thames Water, who supply my area, do not add fluoride but it is worth checking the supplier in your region. 6.1 million people in the UK, 204 million people in the US and 435 million people worldwide receive water with a fluoride content according to the British Fluoridation Society. Fluoride is added by some water providers to prevent tooth decay, but this outdated and dangerous practice has been linked to a whole range of diseases. 27 countries in the European Union, China, India and Japan have all banned the use of fluoride in their water. You may be thinking, but there’s fluoride in my toothpaste! It always surprises that fluoride is still so widely used when it is linked to thyroid problems,₁₁   ADHA,₁₂  reduced IQ and adverse effects of neuro development in children,₁₃  (yet we give it to them twice a day in their toothpaste). Add to this that it appears to cause oxidative stress and mitochondrial damage.₁₄ 

Conclusion

Tap water is definitely better than no water at all, as long as you’re not in a country where the water supply is not clean. However, with a potential cocktail of various chemicals, both naturally occurring and from manmade additions, it certainly seems like the wise choice to filter your water.

In part 2 of It’s in the Water I will be writing about bottled water and then part 3 will cover the different kinds of water filtration systems. 

References

1.  http://www.ft.com/cms/s/0/74032ec6-f495-11e4-8a42-00144feab7de.html#axzz3uU3Hfgv3

2.  http://www.bloombergview.com/articles/2015-01-21/still-sweet-on-coke-and-pepsi-

3. Soto-Blanco B, Marioka PC, Gorniak SL. Effects of long-term low dose cyanide administration to rats. 2002 Sep;53(1):37-41

4. Reed, C.D. and Tolley, J.A. Hazards from the kitchen tap. J. R. Coll. Gen. Pract., 21: 289 (1971)

5.  Gettler, A.O. and Baine, J.O. The toxicology of cyanide. Am. J. Med. Sci., 195: 182 (1938)

6.  Morris, Robert D. Chlorination, Chlorination by-products and cancer. American Journal of Public Health, July 1992;82(7):955-963

7. Zierler s, Feingold L et al. Bladder cancer in Massachusetts related to chlorinated and chloraminated drinking water: a case-control study. Arch Environ Health. 1988 Mar-Apr;43(2):195-200

8. McGeehin MA, Reif JS, et al. Case-control study of bladder cancer and water disinfection methods in Colorado. Am J Epidemiol. 1993 Oct 1;138(7):492-501

9.  A Bernard, S Carbonnelle, et al Lung hyperpermeability and asthma prevalence in schoolchildren: unexpected associations with the attendance at indoor chlorinated swimming pools   Occup Environ Med 2003;60:385–394

10. Nieuwenhuijsen MJ, Toledano MB. Chlorination disinfection byproducts in water and their association with adverse reproductive outcomes: a review. Occup Environ Med 2000;57:73–85

11.  Peckham S, Lowery D, Spencer S. Are fluroide levels in drinking water associated with hypothyroidism prevalance in England? A large observational study of GP practice data and fluoride levels in drinking water. J Epidemiol Community Health doi:10.1136/jech-2014-204971

12.  Hoffman K, Webster T, et al Exposure to Polyfluoroalkyl Chemicals and Attention Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder in U.S. Children 12-15 Years of Age. Environ Health Perspect. 2010 Dec; 118(12): 1762–1767

13.  Choi L, Sun G, et al. Developmental Fluoride Neurotoxicity: A systemic Review and Meta-Analysis. Environ Health Perspect. 2012 Oct; 120(10): 1362–1368

14.  Suzuki M, Bandoski C, Bartlett JD. Fluoride induces oxidative damage and SIRT1/autophagy through ROS-mediated JNK signaling. 2015 Sep 30;89:369-378

15. http://www.hsph.harvard.edu/news/press-releases/bpa-chemical-plastics-leach-polycarbonate-drinking-bottles-humans/

16.  Yang Y, Yaniger S et al. Most Plastic Products Release Estrogenic Chemicals: A Potential Health Problem that Can Be Solved. Environ Health Perspect. 2011 Jul 1; 119(7): 989–996

17.  Sedha S, KUmar S, Shulkla S. Role of Oxidative Stress in Sale Reproductive Dysfunctions with Reference to Phthalate Compounds. 2015 Nov 14;12(5):2304-16

18. Durusoy R, Karababa AO  Plastic food packaging and health. TAF Preventive Medicine Bulletin. 2011;10(1)87-96

19.  Kim IY, Han SY, Moon A, “Phthalates inhibit tamoxifen-induced apoptosis in MCF-7 human breast cancer cells,” J Toxicol Environ Health A, 67(23-24):2025-35, 2004

20.   Okubo T et al. Estimation of estrogenic and anti-estrogenic activities of some phthalate diesters and monoesters by MCF-7 cell proliferation assay in vitro. Biol Pharm Bull, 26(8):1219-24, 2003

21.   Harris CA, Henttu P, Parker MG, “The estrogenic activity of phthalate esters in vitro,” Environ Health Perspect, 105(8):802- 11,1997

22.  Jen J, Liu T, “Determination of phthalate esters from food-contacted materials by on-line microdialysis and liquid chromatography,” J Chromatogr A, 1130(1):28-33, 2006

23.  Schultz M, Furlong E et al. Antidepressant pharmaceuticals in two U.S. effluent-impacted streams: occurrence and fate in water and sediment, and selective uptake in fish neural tissue. Environ Sci Technol. 2010 Mar 15;44(6):1918-25.

24. Schultz M, Furlong E. Trace analysis of antidepressant pharmaceuticals and their select degradates in aquatic matrixes by LC/ESI/MS/MS. Anal Chem. 2008 Mar 1;80(5):1756-62. doi: 10.1021/ac702154e. Epub 2008 Jan 30.

25.  Pomati F, Castiglioni S et al. Effects of a Complex Mixture of Therapeutic Drugs at Environmental Levels on Human Embryonic Cells. Environ. Sci. Technol., 2006, 40 (7), pp 2442–2447

26. Doyle, TJ, Zheng W et al. The Association of drinking water source and chlorination by-products with cancer incidence among postmenopausal women in Iowa: a prospective cohort study. Am J Public Health. 1997 July; 87(7): 1168–1176.

27. Dunnick JK, Melnick RL. Assessment of the carcinogenic potential of chlorinated water: experimental studies of chlorine, chloramine and trihalomethanes.  J Natl Cancer Inst. 1993 May 19;85(10):817-22.

28. Soto-Blanco B, Marioka PC, Gorniak SL.  Neuropathologic study of long term cyanide adminstration to goats. 40, Issue 11, November 2002, Pages 1693–1698 

29. Water UK Pharmaceutical residues in drinking water.

30. The Hazards of Chlorinated Water

Other sources:

http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/18505928

Categorised in: Health Care, Nutritious Roots Blog